Executive Functions by Barkley

 Russell A. Barkley, a well known expert on ADHD, wrote Executive Functions: What They Are, How They Work, and Why They Evolved, to answer four questions:

What is the definition of Executive Function (EF)?

Barkley examines EF as an evolutionary set of processes that assist humans with survival. Because there are so many humans with a large variety of settings, different skills are preferred throughout the populace. Through a examination he describes EF as a series of levels  of skills. Overall he defines the skills set as  "the use of self-directed actions so as to choose goals and to select, enact, and sustain actions across time toward those goals usually in the context of others often relying on social and cultural means for the maximization of one's longer-tern=m welfare as the person defines it to be."(p. 176)

How are existing theories of EF inadequate?

Current theories often lump EF or as he goes on to describe it self-reliance (SR) into one pool of skills. In practice it appears they develop and are seen in a series of steps of skills.

Pre-executive	Attention, memory, spatial and motor functions, primary emotions and motivations
Instrumental self-directed	Self-directed attention (self-awareness), restraint, sensory-motor action, private speech, appraisal (emotion-motivation), play (innovation and problem solving)
Methodical-self-reliant	Use of methods to achieve goals, self-management across time, self-organization and problem solving, self restraint, self-motivation, regulation of emotions, social independence and predation , and social self-defense
Tactical-reciprocal	Use of tactics- nested sets of methods- to attain goals Daily social exchanges Group living, beginning of economics Social interdependence
Strategic-cooperation	Use of strategies- nested sets of tactics to achieve long term goals Arrangement of social cooperatives with division of labor Acting in unison to achieve a common goal Origin of larger settlements
Extended-utilitarian	Use of principles Pursuit of long-term self-interests with the ability to put others needs/interests first Preference for delayed long term consequences Origin of cities, states, countries

 Barkley 2012, p 63

As people develop a sense of time, something people with ADHD tend to have difficulty with, they are able to attain higher levels of complexity along the spectrum of EF/SR skills. As such it is irrational to expect people to be able to develop higher order skills like using strategies when they do not have robust foundations of lower level skills like attention. To combat this, Barkley feels the only rational treatment is medication.

What are the purposes of EF?

Barkley sees the major function of EF as solving the problems of group living with unrelated people.

How to assess EF?

Barkley acknowledges that current tools used to measure EF are inadequate since often the problem is not one of knowing how to, but one of implementing the how to in the context of everyday life. Far too often tools used to measure EF do not really measure EF, or they measure it completely out of context. As Barkley notes, "Just knowing about self-regulation will not automatically translate into actual self-regulation." (p. 200)

People need to assess the skills in the context in which they need to be utilized. 

Barkley indicates that this is not a book for interventions but does offer some guidance. First, in order to intervene, medication needs to be utilized. This remedies innate neurological issues that cause problems. The he suggests that people look at recognizing the temporal unawareness of people with EF weaknesses and provide short, small and immediate reinforcers for motivation. Further, skills need to be taught at the point of performance. Teaching a discrete skill in a therapy room is all well and good, but without environmental modifications and practice in the relevant environment, training will have little benefit.

This book is not an easy read. It is written for practitioners, coming in between grade 13 and 16 for readability. It demands an understand of a basic level of neurophysiology. That said, it does create a structure for understanding EF skills that is important.

Stop coddling our neurodivergent kids

Seth Perler's TEFOS was absolutely wonderful at introducing me to people who are making things happen in the executive function universe. One of the people that I really enjoyed was Shane Thrapp of Creating Order out of Chaos. His recent posts about coddling hit a nerve with me. "The hidden dangers of overprotecting your neurodivergent child" and "Age-appropriate independence building for neurodivergent children" both help define the challenge and offer strategies for overcoming coddling. As a teacher I have seen coddling for all students, not just the neurodivergent ones. Since the pandemic there has been a rash of grade inflation to "help" our kids adjust. Some schools prevent seniors from receiving a failing grade. Parents step in at every opportunity to make the way easier for their children. 

 For kids with ADHD and ASD these behaviors can be worse. Parents want to help their kids, but sometimes this takes the stance of insulating our children from all challenges. True, finding the balance between accommodations and doing it all is a fine line at times. When parents are tired their ability to handle the chaos an unregulated child might cause is limited and doing it yourself seems like the easy way out. But when we do this, we actually hamper our children's opportunity to develop life skills and independence. I love the way Thrapp puts it:

Coddling in families with ADHD and autistic children often disguises itself as necessary support. It's doing your child's homework because they're having a sensory meltdown rather than teaching them to identify their overwhelm signals and take breaks. It's constantly speaking for them in social situations instead of helping them develop scripts and communication strategies. It's removing all unexpected changes from their routine rather than gradually building their tolerance for flexibility within structured frameworks."

With my son, we used to call it "girding our loins" as we waded in to challenging situations that we needed to get through. When we noticed that he had never given his order at a fast food restaurant, but had done so at sit down restaurants, we had our chance. We were on a road trip. My husband and I placed our order, our daughter was required to do so and then it was his turn. Yes, he spent 45 minutes avoiding ordering. There were tears, loud statements that he would go hungry and pleading. We stood firm and, eventually, he was able to use the skills he had to place the order and enjoy his meal. It was not comfortable as a parent. We were stared at by other customers. But in the long run, he learned a valuable skill that he uses to this day. 

 When working on executive function skills or sensory tolerance, it will take longer to develop than with the neurotypical. Habits can take between about 3 weeks to months to form for neurotypical people depending on the complexity of the habit and amount of ingrained training/experience the habit is trying to overcome. Think up to 3 times as long to form habits for our ADHD children. For example, for average students it takes them 2-3 years to develop proficiency with a planner. This includes monitoring, guidance and reinforcement. For our neurodivergent folks it might take 6-9 years to learn. When our instruction in school ends, our neurodivergent folks are still just beginning to learn the new skill and are no where near ready for independence. This works for other skills as well. It can take a long time to get there with lots of frustration along the way. Celebrate the small wins. It is worth it. Thrapp notes, "Remember, your job as a parent isn't to make your child's life perfect, it's to prepare them for independence in a world that won't always accommodate their needs automatically. "

The Incredible Teenage Brain: scaffolding to support teen brain development

 Bettina Hohnen, Jan Gilmour and Tara Murphy's book, The Incredible Teenage Brain: Everything You Need to Know to Unlock Your Teen's Potential, is a a great read. The book discusses the neurology around teen brains and how they are different from both children and adults brains. Further, it provides advice on how to help your teen deal with the challenging social and educational landscape they see on a daily basis. They discuss how to help teens care for their brain and optimize performance (see my previous post).

Much of what they do that is different than other tomes I have read is to provide guidance on how to talk with your teen to optimize their thinking and feeling brains. The final chapter wraps it up in a great mnemonic to help adults keep in mind how to approach their young people when they are in a highly emotional state: May the force be with you Luke.

Maybe this situation pushed your buttons. When your buttons are pushed you react in a suboptimal manner. Be aware of your buttons and work to reduce your emotion. If you approach something in a state of emotional arousal, it will only feed it in your child.

the behavior needs decoding, what are they really saying. Just like with toddlers, teens' behavior is communication. Try to read what is beneath the behavior. What is the message they are sending?

force yourself to wait while the emotions settle. My children had a principal who was awesome with this. There was a bench and his therapy dog in the main office. Children sent down would wait there to speak with them. He kept an eye on them and only pulled them in to conversation when their bodies were calm. Emotional brains are not thinking brains. Do not try to use logic, they won't hear it. Wait for them to come down, then you can talk.

be alongside, be with them. Co-regulation is a thing. If you can sit next to them and be calm, it will help them calm. Depending on your child, holding their hand or rubbing their back may be helpful. Sharing emotional experiences is a good thing and you share it with them. This is not a time to talk, just be with them in a calm state.

withhold your advice form now and just listen. Just listen, no advice, no problem solving. You can demonstrate active listening ( paraphrase back to see if you understand the situation). 

you describe the emotion if they can't. Help them to label their emotions. This is especially useful for kids with ADHD or ASD. Surprisingly naming emotions is a very challenging task for many people. They may not have the vocabulary or understanding of what the emotion looks and feels like. Use a soft approach, "It seems like you are -----." Strong denials may mean you nailed it or that you have it wrong. Puzzle it out after a break.

Luke (look) for a suitable time to talk it out later, think about solutions and learning points. Later, on their schedule talk about the situation. Different situations need different cooling off periods. At a later non-emotionally charged time talk about what happened and problem solve how to deal better with the situation. Let them identify possible ideas, do not feed them solutions. Becoming an adult means you need to have space to try and figure it out. Your job is to provide support and understanding.

New skills take time to learn. You will backslide and mess it up but keep trying and you will get better.

A great book to help adults understand and support teens.

The incredible teenage brain: optimal leaning and mental health

 Bettina Hohnen, Jan Gilmour and Tara Murphy's book, The Incredible Teenage Brain: Everything You Need to Know to Unlock Your Teen's Potential, is a a great read. Although I'm not through it all, the last two chapters spoke to me. As parents we want to optimize our children's health and learning potential. In order to do that, certain things need to be done. This book addresses them and discusses how to go about achieving them; making changes and dealing with challenges that occur as children reach adolescence. I have written about these before, the needs are not newly understood, but this text's add is suggestions for helping your teen make the changes necessary to achieve the best results possible.

First, nutrition. We all know that children need a varied diet. Vegetables, although not often favorites, are a must in a health diet. Fast food is not good for us or our kids. Caffeine is particularly  not good for children. It is associated with sleep disruptions, increased heart rate, acid reflux, nervousness, dental issues, obesity, decreased bone density, increased mental health concerns, challenges with emotional regulation, poor growth, and over 5000 cases a year toxicity. Teens should have at most 1 coffee in a day (about 100mg) and that not every day (Sun Pediatrics). Teens will do what you do. The same impacts are seen on adults. Curbing caffeine, especially in energy drinks is important. We know all this, how do we make the change? Model it, model it, model it. Family dinners help kids eats better, especially if the adults eat better. Rules can be that they need to be present at the table and must try a little of the vegetable matter. Limit sweets. Drinks can be water or milk. Protein in the morning is important for the body to have the components to build the neurotransmitters related to sleep- melatonin. Magnesium may help with relaxation. Talk your child's doctor and or a nutritionist to get guidance.

AN ADHD caveat. Evidence exists that shows caffeine can reduce some symptoms of ADHD. Properly supervised medication is a better choice, but something might be better than nothing. That said, all caffeine should be stopped at least 6 hours before bedtime to limit sleep issues.

Second, sleep. Teens need sleep. The whole circadian rhythm change in teens is real but minor. The bigger issue is social jet lag. Teens stay up to socialize on social media, play video games, accomplish homework and ruminate on life challenges. They are allowed to radically swing their sleep schedules on weekends and vacations which cause huge jet lag issues. Imagine flying across the country  with a three hour, or more, time difference, every week. Just about the time your body gets used to the new time, you change it up. You will not feel rested or well. Small changes (ex. bed time at 11 not 10 on weekends and awake by 9 not 7) will help keep them from being too off track. To make it work, they need to talk about how they feel Monday when they were up late all weekend and sleeping in versus Thursday when they have had a consistent schedule for a few days. Keep all screens out of bedrooms at night. They are an attractive nuisance. Buy an alarm clock, they are remarkably affordable). If they need white noise, get a separate device. Inadequate sleep will mimic ADHD or make it harder for people with it to manage their symptoms. 

If your children are too busy to get homework done before crazy late, cut things out. Talk with teachers about additional support or the homework problem. (Rule of thumb- 10 minutes per grade. If it is more than this, it is too much for the child.)  They don't need that extra club, honors class, sport or volunteer activity. They will still be able to establish a college application that is quality without sacrificing their mental health or their actual learning of material.

Rumination is a particular challenge. As adults we are familiar with this challenge of minds being too busy to sleep. Try to minimize conflict in the evening. Try to keep communications open so that you can help with social concerns before bed. Teach that teens see things more negatively at night. Keep the screens away at night. They just add social drama, mental stimulation, and heightened concerns of all sorts.

Third exercise. All kids should get 60 minutes of exercise every day. Studies have shown that this helps children with ADHD manage their behavior, especially if it is outside. Exercise helps kids deal with energy and negative emotions. Anxiety is a huge concern that can be addressed, in part, through exercise. When students put this kind of work in on a daily basis it raises their grades. Exercise also helps kids manage their weight and reduces rates of heart issues both as children and when they grow up as adults.

Finally feeling loved, safe and secure. One of the basic needs for humans is love. Show kids you love them, even when they are being pesky, nasty, disrespectful beasts. Do not stoop to their level. Love them in spite of it all. When they get loud, get quiet. Learn to disengage when they want to fight. Give them kudos for the things they do well- all kids, even when they are at their worst, do good. Essure their environment is safe. Work with social services and school if you are having trouble with housing, medical care or food. People are there to help and not judge. Kids do need more than love, but that is indeed a big part of the puzzle.

Executive function toolkit: getting things done and scheduling

 

Executive functioning (EF) is the ability to plan and manage one’s life. It includes things like time management, task initiation, problem solving, verbal reasoning, persistence, attention and emotional regulation. Many people with EF challenges struggle to get things done.

 

1. The "Non-Negotiable" Schedule Trick 📅
   Just like basketball practice or doctor appointments, study time goes directly into their calendar. Here's why this works: When study time is treated as important as other activities, it's no longer optional. No more "I'll do it later" excuses!

 

2.      Time robbers “The concept of “time robbers” can be a fun way to call to attention all the little (or maybe not so little) things we do that take away from our goal. “ (Van Zandt). Identify your time robbers and think up ways to prevent them. If you get up to get a drink repeatedly, have a bottle of water on standby. If you look out the window and get distracted, do not face the window. Silence notifications on your phone and set it out of reach.

 

 

 

3.      https://gpsparentseries.org/events/sarah-ward-kristen-jacobsen/

4.      Checklists are a marvelous tool for getting things done. They help surgeons perform their work successfully and pilots fly their planes. Make a list, you might have parts of a job listed (clean your room might include- dishes to dishwasher, dirty clothes to hamper, clean clothes to dresser/closet, school supplies on desk, bed made) and cross things off as you go.

5.      Establish routines. Bedtime might include pick up your toys, get backpack ready for school tomorrow, put electronic devices on charger, brush teeth, wash face, put on PJs, put dirty clothes in the hamper, read a story with an adult, go to bed. Coming home from school might be: have snack, go to the bathroom, do your homework, complete your chores. A checklist or picture schedule could be used to help ensure each step gets done. Once the child is very successful with the routine, you can wean them from the routine list. If they get off track, ask, “What is the next step?” Having routines for daily/ weekly tasks saves mental energy and ensures things get done.

6.      Get things Done (GTD) system- David Allen’s strategy is described by Rebekah Pierce is good for older children and adults and will require lots of training and support.

1.      Capture- write down all the things that need to be done. Electronics might be useful, or might be a distraction, you have to experiment to see what works for you. Photos or event reminders might be used. Todoist is an app that might be useful for older children and adults. Google calendar might be useful for some.

2.      Clarify-

1.      anything that needs 2 minutes or less, do now.

2.      Delegate what can/should be delegated

3.      Give it a due date

4.      Delete unimportant things

5.      Be specific as possible

3.      Organize- Categorize items (homework, chores, recreation,…) and determine the time needed to complete them

4.      Engage- do it

1.      Context- what can be done now (riding in the car you cannot compose a paper, but you might be able to listen to an audiobook)

2.      Time- how much time is available now. Match required time with available time

3.      Energy- how much energy do you have to complete the tasks. Put hard/demanding tasks when you have energy

4.      Priority- what is most important

5.      reflect

Source: https://lifesuccessforteenswebinar.com/training?utm_source=email&utm_medium=email+marketing&utm_campaign=Back+By+Popular+Demand:+Straight-A+Student+Tips+for+the+New+School+Year+%F0%9F%93%9A+(12-07-2025)

https://lunchbuddiesplus.wordpress.com/2018/04/19/time-robbers/

Van Zandt, L. (2017) https://eastersealsdfvr.wordpress.com/2017/06/13/executive-functioning-skills-co-op-model-part-3-time-robbers/

Executive function toolkit: Reading comprehension

 

Executive function skills are a set of skills that include working memory, flexible thinking and self-control. When reading, people must utilize both working memory and self-control to maintain focus. “Executive function challenges can interfere with reading comprehension as students struggle to maintain attention for engaged, active reading, formulate informational gestalts, make inferences, and organize details. “ (Cognitive Connections)

Regardless of their age or grade, children read better when they utilize active reading strategies. These strategies involve thinking about what you read and writing something down. Children often resist them because they “take more time,” failing to appreciate that when you read for information (fiction or nonfiction), it takes more time. These strategies help students to slow down and benefit from what they read. It creates a written document to remind them of the information that can be used to review, study or quickly reference details. The graphic organizers below are samples of those readily available on the web. Encourage your child to use strategies to develop their reading

1.      Somebody, wanted, but so/and, then summarization.

This strategy can be used in everyday life to practice. Ask your child to summarize a trip to the store, the park or a movie. The resulting summary can be only one or two sentences. Children could compete to provide the shortest version or the version with the most details or the one with the most interesting adjectives. They could tell made up stories using the format as well.

2.      Story maps range from simple to more complex. Children who are not adept at writing could draw pictures. When chapter books are encountered they can keep a running document to indicate the rising action (things that happen leading to the climax) to the climax (point of highest action, tension, or conflict; the turning point in a story) to the falling action (wrap up the end). These are great tools for older students who are going to have a test on a book that they read over a period of time because it keeps track of what happened. Students often forget story elements when they read longer books because it takes too long to read them or they read without paying attention  and fail to recognize the breakdown of comprehension.

 

 

3.      Summarization steps

1. Look for and list the key words and main ideas in each sentence or paragraph.
2. Draw a line under the main idea statements and most important ideas in the text.
3. Combine any ideas that can go into one sentence.
4. Number the ideas in order.
5. Write a summary in one or two sentences or one paragraph.
6. Read through and edit the summary.

 

4.      RAP 

1.      Read the passage

2.      Answer the questions. If there are no questions, turn subtitles into questions.

3.      Prove you are right

5.      Summarizing nonfiction:

1.      Text: what type of text is it

2.      Action and about: what is the purpose of the text

3.      Main idea: state the main idea (what is this passage about)

4.      Supporting Details: Back up your main idea with details

 

Executive Function Toolkit: Resiliency

 Executive function, more than IQ or education, determines how successful a person will be. It is the capacity to get things done effectively, efficiently, and in the presence of others. In school we often talk about a student’s resiliency or ability to persevere when things go badly.

The American Psychological Association defines resilience as,

“the process and outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or challenging life experiences, especially through mental, emotional, and behavioral flexibility and adjustment to external and internal demands.

 A number of factors contribute to how well people adapt to adversities, including the ways in which individuals view and engage with the world, the availability and quality of social resources, and specific coping strategies.

Psychological research demonstrates that the resources and skills associated with resilience can be cultivated and practiced.”

Parents and teachers can help build resiliency in youths. Some things to work on include:

·         Break down big tasks into smaller ones. This could be anything from an essay in school, to learning to pitch a baseball, or cleaning a bedroom. Identify components, putting them into writing or pictures for young children, and note each component when complete. Include plenty of praise for each step.

·         Model resiliency. When things go wrong, show children how to handle the problem, get back up and try again.

·         Use positive self-talk and affirmations. This can be phrases such as, “This is hard, but I can do it,” or “I don’t know that, yet, and I can learn it,” can be paired with, “It didn’t work this time, but I can try again” messages.

·         Build connections between learning and dreams. The Lexile Career Database, shows reading levels needed for jobs. The average actor needs a reading level of 1130 L (7^th grade level) and an average farm owner 1250L (12^th grade level). It is true that there are options. Wally Amos of Famous Amos Cookies is known for saying that he could hire people to read for him (he had a significant reading disability), but in order to get there he struggled long and hard. In order to become a musician, you must practice. The Beetles spent 2 years playing and practicing 10 hours a day in Hamburg clubs, earning practically nothing, before going back to Britain and becoming famous. This builds purpose behind the struggle.

·         Establish a hassle-free zone. Parents can have a no nagging Saturday. A safe zone can be established where children can have a few minutes to calm and self-regulate before going back to the frustrating task. (This should be limited by time- for example, you can opt out for 5 minutes, but then you have to try again/more.) Giving children some control helps them build the ability to regulate and counter frustration.

·         Adequate sleep, nutrition and exercise. These things make everything better. Refer to your doctor for recommendations on what is appropriate for your child.

·         Help others. Put children in positions to help others. Collect mail for a neighbor who is out of town for a day, read to a younger child, listen to a younger child read or help practice math facts, or volunteer at a food bank. Getting your mind off your problems and seeing other people productively struggle can help build capacity for picking up and trying again.

·         Put things in perspective. Everyone struggles at times. Highlight the struggles of people, both in your child’s life and those of important others. Henry Winkler, Thomas Edison, Milton Hershey, Walt Disney, Colonel Sanders and Michael Jordan are just a few people who failed before becoming successful. A failure at a time does not mean a failure forever.

·         Develop circles of support. Everyone needs support sometimes. Show your child how others help you and help them recognize people who can help them. This could be parents, coaches, teachers, clergy, neighbors, therapists, peers or others.

Help your child build resilience and help them to become more successful.

Sources

Cathleen Beachboard, https://www.edutopia.org/article/strategies-build-students-resilience (2025)

Ng, R., Ang, R.P. & Ho, MH.R. Coping with Anxiety, Depression, Anger and Aggression: The Mediational Role of Resilience in Adolescents. Child Youth Care Forum 41, 529–546 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-012-9182-x  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10566-012-9182-x

Mary K. Alvord, PhD, Robin Gurwitch, PhD, Jana Martin, PhD, and Ronald S. Palomares, PhD https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience/bounce-teens